In writing about critical approaches to TESOL, Pennycook (1999) talks about domains and the connections between the micro issues to do with TESOL and aspects of the ESOL classroom and macro issues out in the wider world -- race, religion, gender, sexuality, and wider concerns of power relations, enequality and inequities.
In my considerable efforts to make this connection to the critical issues of the wider world in my ESOL classroom of adult migrants I have found it can be something of a twin edged sword. Very careful consideration must go into it because of cultural, personal and religious sensitivities of students who may well take see things another way.
For example, in a unit of work on fashion, I suggested that people have very different ideas about what fashion is and how it can serve various intentions, including making polticial statements. So when I showed a TV3 Campbell live piece in which a woman was using topless beach fashion to make a point about women's rights, I got a reaction from a Korean woman in my class who was a devote Catholic. Apparently, women's breast are taboo in her mind. Prayer meetings were reportedly held at 4 am the next morning involving her and a couple of other religious fundamentalists in my class to save my immortal soul.
In another instance, bringing up issues of gender or homosexuality I can see visible reactions of the faces of some of the Korean fundamentalists.
Similarly, talking about women's issues to do with rights, equality and the like can result in indignant reactions from older Korean males. That's when I found out that one of my Korean male students had never even been in a supermarket, or cooked a meal. Such was women's work he exclaimed.
What I take from examples like this is that bringing the wider world in a critical sense into an ESOL classroom with such a wide range of personal and cultural baggage to contend with can lead to unexpected outcomes that the teacher should be sensitive to and give consideration to beforehand so as to be ready to contend with possible negative reactions.
Mind you, generally I have found that integrating a critical approach in my classroom has been quite stimulating and very conducive to getting students to communicate.
But, I now ensure that I carefully consider what I'm about to do in the classroom before launching into it.
Kia ora, Mike
Pennycook, A.(1999. Introduction: Critical Approaches to TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 33(3).
Saturday, April 24, 2010
chanjuan Du week6
Overt banners of criticality, as Pennycook(2004) states, contribute to the emergence of topics like critical discourse analysis, critical literacy or critical pedagogy, and critical work and theory concerning gender, race, culture etc, respective aspects that Pennycook discusses and critiques under the theme of Critical Applied Linguistics (CAL).
Focusing on language teaching, or ESL specifically, which most of us are involved in, Pennycook(2001) states several issues in the course of teaching: the language, the materials, the methods, what the students do and say. From critical perspectives, all these issues are to be viewed as "social-political and cultural political" questions. It is said that there are cultural preferences in the whole course of language teaching, allthough consciously or unconsciously being overlooked.
Still, after reading the "monkeys passage" and its bombed reaction from the students, I got shocked and confused as well. As an English teacher, did I ever notice the teaching materials I chose, might cast positive or negative influence upon students? Most of my students are from rural areas. Then would a passage about millionaire or vogue cause their interest or aversion? I got confused too because if all aspects are to be taken into consideration, I really do not know what to teach and how to teach. I can not walk on the way of teaching. Therefore, being critical, and then being smart to choose a proper way to go on, should be our concern.
References:
Norton Peirce, B. & Stein, P. (1995). Why the "Monkey Passage" bombed: Tests, genres, and teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 65(1), 50-65
Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Pennycook, A. (2004). Critical applied linguistics. In A, Davis & C, Elder(Eds.), The handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford : Blackwell.
Focusing on language teaching, or ESL specifically, which most of us are involved in, Pennycook(2001) states several issues in the course of teaching: the language, the materials, the methods, what the students do and say. From critical perspectives, all these issues are to be viewed as "social-political and cultural political" questions. It is said that there are cultural preferences in the whole course of language teaching, allthough consciously or unconsciously being overlooked.
Still, after reading the "monkeys passage" and its bombed reaction from the students, I got shocked and confused as well. As an English teacher, did I ever notice the teaching materials I chose, might cast positive or negative influence upon students? Most of my students are from rural areas. Then would a passage about millionaire or vogue cause their interest or aversion? I got confused too because if all aspects are to be taken into consideration, I really do not know what to teach and how to teach. I can not walk on the way of teaching. Therefore, being critical, and then being smart to choose a proper way to go on, should be our concern.
References:
Norton Peirce, B. & Stein, P. (1995). Why the "Monkey Passage" bombed: Tests, genres, and teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 65(1), 50-65
Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Pennycook, A. (2004). Critical applied linguistics. In A, Davis & C, Elder(Eds.), The handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford : Blackwell.
Monday, April 12, 2010
EAP & Academic Literacy
The discussion between EAP and Academic literacy has drawn the attention among educationalists, tertiary students and some people from other academic domains. EAP, according to Hocking, “was predominantly located in the field of teaching academic writing to second language speakers of English”. It’s also a key course for students in high school or pre-university institutions before entering the university. Whereas academic literacy was focused on the more general field of writing in higher education”. The link between both is about academic writing.
As every tertiary student knows that most communication between students and lecturers are through writing at university. Students are often assessed by writing reports, essays, entries, wikis and so on. So to learn the fundamental academic writing techniques is crucial. The Critical EAP was one of valuable papers I took in my first year of BA study and taught me the principles of academic writing. I suppose it should be taught from high school so that the transition from pre-university stage to the university level is not going to have too much obstacle. Unfortunately, from my recent teaching experience, the crucial role of EAP is often treated in reductionism term as remedial, study skills, or adjunct in the literature. Many high students are having trouble to write a short (500-1000 words) essay.
I also found myself still have trouble to write essays and commentaries. The problem with me is not the structure of the writing, the foci, or approaches. I could sit here and write all day about the theories, the writing processes from different range of perspectives, orientations or approaches as based on Leki (1998). However, the struggle I’m having is to construct English language into writing, I mean to create a content which has accurate grammatical structures and the rhetorical patterns.
Reference:
Leki, I. 1998. Academic writing: Exploring Processes and Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
As every tertiary student knows that most communication between students and lecturers are through writing at university. Students are often assessed by writing reports, essays, entries, wikis and so on. So to learn the fundamental academic writing techniques is crucial. The Critical EAP was one of valuable papers I took in my first year of BA study and taught me the principles of academic writing. I suppose it should be taught from high school so that the transition from pre-university stage to the university level is not going to have too much obstacle. Unfortunately, from my recent teaching experience, the crucial role of EAP is often treated in reductionism term as remedial, study skills, or adjunct in the literature. Many high students are having trouble to write a short (500-1000 words) essay.
I also found myself still have trouble to write essays and commentaries. The problem with me is not the structure of the writing, the foci, or approaches. I could sit here and write all day about the theories, the writing processes from different range of perspectives, orientations or approaches as based on Leki (1998). However, the struggle I’m having is to construct English language into writing, I mean to create a content which has accurate grammatical structures and the rhetorical patterns.
Reference:
Leki, I. 1998. Academic writing: Exploring Processes and Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Saturday, April 10, 2010
Systemic Functional Linguistics in Language Teaching
I was lost in the subject of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL).
My understanding of SFL is using text in a language so that language becomes functional. In other words, when language changes in its context, the function will be different in terms of culture and situation in the context. Text may also be analysed in terms of the range and nature of options.
Till now, I just realised that I had studied a paper called ‘Discourse Annalysis’ which investingates, amongst other social phenomena, the constrction of ideology in discourse. It emphasised on the context of situation and context of culture, such as “what is to be talked or written about and the long and short term goals of the text which is the field; the relationship between the speaker and hearer or, of course, writer and reader which is the Tenor; the kind of text that is being made which is the Mode” (Butt et al., 2000, p.5). I also remembered we did lots of insightful analysis of text and discourse form a social perspective.
However, the implications of teaching language is not only to teach vocabulary and grammar, but also to lean how to use the language in a way that makes sense to other people who speak the language (Butt, et al. 2000). Therefore, the SFL pedagogy should be understood and realized, and more research is needed by teacher educators. It’s a massive and complicated educational topic.
Reference:
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks., S., & Yallop., C. (2000). Using functional grammar: An explorer’s guide (2nd ed). Sydney: NCELTR
My understanding of SFL is using text in a language so that language becomes functional. In other words, when language changes in its context, the function will be different in terms of culture and situation in the context. Text may also be analysed in terms of the range and nature of options.
Till now, I just realised that I had studied a paper called ‘Discourse Annalysis’ which investingates, amongst other social phenomena, the constrction of ideology in discourse. It emphasised on the context of situation and context of culture, such as “what is to be talked or written about and the long and short term goals of the text which is the field; the relationship between the speaker and hearer or, of course, writer and reader which is the Tenor; the kind of text that is being made which is the Mode” (Butt et al., 2000, p.5). I also remembered we did lots of insightful analysis of text and discourse form a social perspective.
However, the implications of teaching language is not only to teach vocabulary and grammar, but also to lean how to use the language in a way that makes sense to other people who speak the language (Butt, et al. 2000). Therefore, the SFL pedagogy should be understood and realized, and more research is needed by teacher educators. It’s a massive and complicated educational topic.
Reference:
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks., S., & Yallop., C. (2000). Using functional grammar: An explorer’s guide (2nd ed). Sydney: NCELTR
Friday, April 9, 2010
Genre and language teaching
Genre based approach has become a major trend in English language teaching (ELT). It’s not new, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) are early examples. In recent years, teaching and learning around text genres has developed into the mainstream of ELT that including primary school, secondary school, and university as well as English language learners.
According to Paltridge, “genre studies have taken place in different ways I different parts of the world” (2001, p.16). The rationale for adopting a genre-based framework is that it facilitates clear links to the students' purposes for writing beyond the writing classroom. Thus, the primary factors in curricular selection are ensuring a balance of text types, to enable students to perform a broad range of social purposes for writing in English in future, and selection of specific genres based on the students' most immediate academic needs.
Rossberry and Henrry (2007) suggest, for advanced language learners, lexical knowledge plays a greater role than grammar in the acquisition of native-like fluency. The present study was to test this view by examining the language errors of university entry-level students whose first academic language is not English and to determine with some precision what kinds of errors these students make, how these errors relate to specific parts of written genres and what guidelines may be followed to overcome such errors. To do this, an error analysis was undertaken, involving a short tourist information text written in English by 40 Malay-speaking students at the University of Brunei Darussalem. It was found that the majority of errors, as expected, were errors of usage, not grammar, and that there was a relationship between the types of errors and the move-strategy (way in which a genre move is realized in content). It is concluded that, at the academic level, raising students' awareness of usage types and patterns with relation to genre moves is far more crucial than instruction in grammar. Furthermore, it is proposed that instruction in usage must be undertaken in small-group or individual settings and must be relevant to the student's immediate language task.
Reference:
Henry, A. & Roseberry, L. R. (2007). Language Errors in the Genre-based Writing of Advanced Academic ESL Students. RELC Journal. 38(2), 171-198.
Paltridge, B (2001). Genre and The Language Learning Classroom. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press.
According to Paltridge, “genre studies have taken place in different ways I different parts of the world” (2001, p.16). The rationale for adopting a genre-based framework is that it facilitates clear links to the students' purposes for writing beyond the writing classroom. Thus, the primary factors in curricular selection are ensuring a balance of text types, to enable students to perform a broad range of social purposes for writing in English in future, and selection of specific genres based on the students' most immediate academic needs.
Rossberry and Henrry (2007) suggest, for advanced language learners, lexical knowledge plays a greater role than grammar in the acquisition of native-like fluency. The present study was to test this view by examining the language errors of university entry-level students whose first academic language is not English and to determine with some precision what kinds of errors these students make, how these errors relate to specific parts of written genres and what guidelines may be followed to overcome such errors. To do this, an error analysis was undertaken, involving a short tourist information text written in English by 40 Malay-speaking students at the University of Brunei Darussalem. It was found that the majority of errors, as expected, were errors of usage, not grammar, and that there was a relationship between the types of errors and the move-strategy (way in which a genre move is realized in content). It is concluded that, at the academic level, raising students' awareness of usage types and patterns with relation to genre moves is far more crucial than instruction in grammar. Furthermore, it is proposed that instruction in usage must be undertaken in small-group or individual settings and must be relevant to the student's immediate language task.
Reference:
Henry, A. & Roseberry, L. R. (2007). Language Errors in the Genre-based Writing of Advanced Academic ESL Students. RELC Journal. 38(2), 171-198.
Paltridge, B (2001). Genre and The Language Learning Classroom. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press.
Monday, April 5, 2010
Chanjuan Du week 5(EAP)
The topic of writing was considered before in the ESP and genre part of this course. Whether ESP or EAP, the core issue is to set a respective format for learners to follow and for teachers to instruct easily.
Before the lecture, I took part in a KEYS course named "success to academic writing" conducted by AUT. The content was mainly about the writing process, the structure, topic sentence, how to write a paragraph, and so on. It sounds like cliches without any novel ideas, but undoubtedly that on the practice level, it is operable. After all, students are required to meet the assessment standards and teachers are supposed to assess students according to certain criteria. It is said that students should know what they want to know. But in most cases, students may ask "What am I supposed to know?". With a clear frame, things may be easier to manipulate.
While according to a research concerning writing in higher education conducted by Lea & Street (1998), things are more complicated than it appears. On the one hand, although academic staff can list the constitutes of a successful writing, they meet difficulties when trying to explicit a "well-developed arguement". On the other hand, for students, they meet more complexity when taking different subjects with diverse requirements. EAP involves not only the right structure but also the characteristics of specific disciplines.Humanities and scientific researches are different in writing. So, what does the meaning of "academic writing skills" lie in?
Each year, thousands of non-native English learners take IELTS, by which they can study in English country. Does the fixed format of IELTS writing help when they start academic learning? Question remains!
Reference:
Lea, M. R. & Street, B. V. (1998). Student writing in higher education: an academic literacies approach. Studies in Higher Education; June 1998, 23(2)
Before the lecture, I took part in a KEYS course named "success to academic writing" conducted by AUT. The content was mainly about the writing process, the structure, topic sentence, how to write a paragraph, and so on. It sounds like cliches without any novel ideas, but undoubtedly that on the practice level, it is operable. After all, students are required to meet the assessment standards and teachers are supposed to assess students according to certain criteria. It is said that students should know what they want to know. But in most cases, students may ask "What am I supposed to know?". With a clear frame, things may be easier to manipulate.
While according to a research concerning writing in higher education conducted by Lea & Street (1998), things are more complicated than it appears. On the one hand, although academic staff can list the constitutes of a successful writing, they meet difficulties when trying to explicit a "well-developed arguement". On the other hand, for students, they meet more complexity when taking different subjects with diverse requirements. EAP involves not only the right structure but also the characteristics of specific disciplines.Humanities and scientific researches are different in writing. So, what does the meaning of "academic writing skills" lie in?
Each year, thousands of non-native English learners take IELTS, by which they can study in English country. Does the fixed format of IELTS writing help when they start academic learning? Question remains!
Reference:
Lea, M. R. & Street, B. V. (1998). Student writing in higher education: an academic literacies approach. Studies in Higher Education; June 1998, 23(2)
Saturday, April 3, 2010
Mike comments week five Critical EAP v pragmatism
I was initially rather ambivalent about week five's focus topic, perhaps because I'm not directly engaged as a teacher in the field, and so I tended to regard it as not entirely relevant to my needs and interests. Also, I was unable to draw upon my own experiences as a resource. Consequently, I felt rather distant from the debate, an outsider with no investment in it.
That feeling changed, however, after reading Teresa Lillis's (2003) paper arising from her experiences with students at the Open University in the UK. Her opening positional comment regarding the shift in the UK "from an elite to a mass higher education system where there is greater cultural, linguistic and social diversity" (p.192)struck a chord. It got me thinking about tertiary education in the New Zealand context, and particularly about the principles of adult education and lifelong learning and the institution I work for -- Te Wananga o Aotearoa (TWOA).
TWOA (now called "Open Wananga") was established in response to the bi-cultural context of New Zealand in which Maori (as first people of this Land) were subsumed under the educational norms and values of the non-Maori colonists who imposed their cultural values and ideas about education to the detriment of Maori development. TWOA arose as a response to the recognition by Maori intelligentia that the educational needs and aspirations of young Maori and others of polynesian heritage living in Aotearoa have not been met by the educational system. Although the Open Wananga's target population (or market to use a neo-liberal concept) is Maori, it is open to adults of all races (hence its offering of ESOL courses to migrants). However, it's not my intention to explore that here.
The Open Wananga's philosophy of education is uniquely Maori - that is, to use a Maori term Ako. Ako is like a two-way street. Indeed, it is dialogic. Teaching and learning is a mutually beneficial, interactive process in which teachers can sometimes play the role of learners and learners can also, on occasion, become teachers. Scaffolding is fundamental to Maori education and has been that way long before colonisation and long before Vygotsky was born.
Open Wananga's hilosophy is fundamentally that anyone can learn and has a right to advance their education regardless of whether they had encountered past difficulties with education - even "failure". Learning is open to all regardless of age or ability and is a regarded as a lifelong process. What's really key is motivation and commitment. The TWOA Open Wananga's adult education programmes incorporate Maori learning principles that have in more recent times been articulated as "adult learning principles" by various contemporary contributors such as Brookfield (1986), Draper (1992) Draves (1997), Grissom (1992, Knowles (1992), Vella (1994)and others. Some of the key principles are: 1) Courses designed for adult learners should involve the learners in planning and implementing learning activities, including assessment; 2) Such courses should draw upon learners' experiences as a resource; 3) Tutors should strive to cultivate self-direction in learners; 4) They should try at all times to create a climate that encourages and supports learning; 5) Tutors should foster a spirit of collaboration in the learning setting, consistent with Ako, or the idea that the roles of tutors and students can be interchangeable. 6)The use of small groups is a critical precept in adult education, having deep historical roots in Maoridom. Groups promote teamwork and encourage co-operation and collaboration among learners and support learning from peers,so adults learning in small groups should be embedded in adult education practice.
I believe most of these ideas would fit well within the critical EAP debate. Yet, interestingly, in all these papers I've been reading about EAP and critical EAP, the students are not cast as adults. Rather, they are projected as being in some twilight zone of half-formed, still-to-be-shaped entity caught between youth and adulthood. I suppose this arises at least partly from perceptions that they are, as non-native users of English, regarded as insufficiently literate and so deficient. In fact, they are not deficient. Actually, they just come from another discourse. The students that Lillis (2003) writes about in her paper "echo Batkin's emphasis on meaning making as the encounter between difference, on constructing meanings which keep such difference in play. They indicate that the bringing together of different discourses is something they desire in their making of new meanings in academia, and thus exemplify the potential creative forms of hybridity/hybrid texts which are, Bakhtin (1981, p36) says: 'pregnant with potential for new world views, with new 'internal forms' for perceiving the world in words'(p.205)."
On reflection, I see parallels here with the Open Wananga, the institution for which I work. Many Maori and Pacific Island young adults, but also many non-Maori adults, including the immigrant learners who are in my ESOL class who want to engage with lifelong learning often stand outside the dominant discourse of the monologic institutions. Nevertheless, they are intent on meaning making consistent with their own unique world views, which may be either culturally distinct or individually unique. So, The Open Wananga fills a void and opens up a new space. In doing so, who knows what potential it might give birth to.
Ka kite ano,
Mike
Bakhtin, M. (1981). Discourse in the novel. In M. Holquist (ed). The Dialogic Imagination. Four Essays by M. Bakhtin (trans. C. Emerson and M. Holquist). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Draper, J. A. (1992). The Dynamic Mandala of Adult Education. Convergence 23(6): 73-81.
Draves, W.A. (1997). How to Teach Adults. 2nd ed. Manhattan, KS: Learnining Resources Network.
Grissom, B. M. (1992. Fosteriing Adult Learning Principles for Your Staff: One Administrator's Perspective of teh Value of Conferences. Adult Learning 4, (1): 15-17.
Knowles, M.S. (1992). Aplying Principles of Adult Learning in Conference Presentations." Adult Learning 4, (2): 11-14.
Lillis, 2003. Student writing as 'Academic Literacies': Drawing on Bakhtin to Move from Critique to Design. Language and Education, 17,(3).
Vella, J. (1994). Learning to listen, learning to teach: the power of dialogue in educating adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ED 368 926
That feeling changed, however, after reading Teresa Lillis's (2003) paper arising from her experiences with students at the Open University in the UK. Her opening positional comment regarding the shift in the UK "from an elite to a mass higher education system where there is greater cultural, linguistic and social diversity" (p.192)struck a chord. It got me thinking about tertiary education in the New Zealand context, and particularly about the principles of adult education and lifelong learning and the institution I work for -- Te Wananga o Aotearoa (TWOA).
TWOA (now called "Open Wananga") was established in response to the bi-cultural context of New Zealand in which Maori (as first people of this Land) were subsumed under the educational norms and values of the non-Maori colonists who imposed their cultural values and ideas about education to the detriment of Maori development. TWOA arose as a response to the recognition by Maori intelligentia that the educational needs and aspirations of young Maori and others of polynesian heritage living in Aotearoa have not been met by the educational system. Although the Open Wananga's target population (or market to use a neo-liberal concept) is Maori, it is open to adults of all races (hence its offering of ESOL courses to migrants). However, it's not my intention to explore that here.
The Open Wananga's philosophy of education is uniquely Maori - that is, to use a Maori term Ako. Ako is like a two-way street. Indeed, it is dialogic. Teaching and learning is a mutually beneficial, interactive process in which teachers can sometimes play the role of learners and learners can also, on occasion, become teachers. Scaffolding is fundamental to Maori education and has been that way long before colonisation and long before Vygotsky was born.
Open Wananga's hilosophy is fundamentally that anyone can learn and has a right to advance their education regardless of whether they had encountered past difficulties with education - even "failure". Learning is open to all regardless of age or ability and is a regarded as a lifelong process. What's really key is motivation and commitment. The TWOA Open Wananga's adult education programmes incorporate Maori learning principles that have in more recent times been articulated as "adult learning principles" by various contemporary contributors such as Brookfield (1986), Draper (1992) Draves (1997), Grissom (1992, Knowles (1992), Vella (1994)and others. Some of the key principles are: 1) Courses designed for adult learners should involve the learners in planning and implementing learning activities, including assessment; 2) Such courses should draw upon learners' experiences as a resource; 3) Tutors should strive to cultivate self-direction in learners; 4) They should try at all times to create a climate that encourages and supports learning; 5) Tutors should foster a spirit of collaboration in the learning setting, consistent with Ako, or the idea that the roles of tutors and students can be interchangeable. 6)The use of small groups is a critical precept in adult education, having deep historical roots in Maoridom. Groups promote teamwork and encourage co-operation and collaboration among learners and support learning from peers,so adults learning in small groups should be embedded in adult education practice.
I believe most of these ideas would fit well within the critical EAP debate. Yet, interestingly, in all these papers I've been reading about EAP and critical EAP, the students are not cast as adults. Rather, they are projected as being in some twilight zone of half-formed, still-to-be-shaped entity caught between youth and adulthood. I suppose this arises at least partly from perceptions that they are, as non-native users of English, regarded as insufficiently literate and so deficient. In fact, they are not deficient. Actually, they just come from another discourse. The students that Lillis (2003) writes about in her paper "echo Batkin's emphasis on meaning making as the encounter between difference, on constructing meanings which keep such difference in play. They indicate that the bringing together of different discourses is something they desire in their making of new meanings in academia, and thus exemplify the potential creative forms of hybridity/hybrid texts which are, Bakhtin (1981, p36) says: 'pregnant with potential for new world views, with new 'internal forms' for perceiving the world in words'(p.205)."
On reflection, I see parallels here with the Open Wananga, the institution for which I work. Many Maori and Pacific Island young adults, but also many non-Maori adults, including the immigrant learners who are in my ESOL class who want to engage with lifelong learning often stand outside the dominant discourse of the monologic institutions. Nevertheless, they are intent on meaning making consistent with their own unique world views, which may be either culturally distinct or individually unique. So, The Open Wananga fills a void and opens up a new space. In doing so, who knows what potential it might give birth to.
Ka kite ano,
Mike
Bakhtin, M. (1981). Discourse in the novel. In M. Holquist (ed). The Dialogic Imagination. Four Essays by M. Bakhtin (trans. C. Emerson and M. Holquist). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Draper, J. A. (1992). The Dynamic Mandala of Adult Education. Convergence 23(6): 73-81.
Draves, W.A. (1997). How to Teach Adults. 2nd ed. Manhattan, KS: Learnining Resources Network.
Grissom, B. M. (1992. Fosteriing Adult Learning Principles for Your Staff: One Administrator's Perspective of teh Value of Conferences. Adult Learning 4, (1): 15-17.
Knowles, M.S. (1992). Aplying Principles of Adult Learning in Conference Presentations." Adult Learning 4, (2): 11-14.
Lillis, 2003. Student writing as 'Academic Literacies': Drawing on Bakhtin to Move from Critique to Design. Language and Education, 17,(3).
Vella, J. (1994). Learning to listen, learning to teach: the power of dialogue in educating adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ED 368 926
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